History of Cinchona Bark; Quinine; Chloroquine; Hydroxychloroquine from 1600 to the COVID Holocaust
History of Cinchona Bark; Quinine; Chloroquine; Hydroxychloroquine from 1600 to the COVID Holocaust
TIMELINE BEGINS
1600. A Jesuit is said to have been cured of fever at Malacotas, near Loxa, by taking the bark given to him by the Indians, as long ago as 1600. A memoir of the Lady Ana de Osorio, countess of Chinchon and vice-queen of Peru (A. D. 1629-39) with a plea for the correct spelling of the Chinchona genus
Around 1600. "Quinine, as a component of the bark of the cinchona (quina-quina) tree, was used to treat malaria from as early as the 1600s, when it was referred to as the "Jesuits' bark," "cardinal's bark," or "sacred bark." These names stem from its use in 1630 by Jesuit missionaries in South America, though a legend suggests earlier use by the native population[2]. According to this legend, an Indian with a high fever was lost in an Andean jungle. Thirsty, he drank from a pool of stagnant water and found that it tasted bitter. Realizing that the water had been contaminated by the surrounding quina-quina trees he thought he was poisoned. Surprisingly, his fever soon abated, and he shared this accidental discovery with fellow villagers, who thereafter used extracts from the quina-quina bark to treat fever." Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: role in the treatment of malaria
1618-1638. "During the Thirty Years War, 1618–1648, the British fought alongside the Dutch and soon took a liking to Dutch gin, which the Dutch themselves called ‘genever’, meaning juniper in Dutch. In English, ‘genever’ became gin and an English obsession was born as it made its way back with the soldiers. This is also thought to be where the term ‘Dutch courage’ comes from, referencing Dutch soldiers reportedly enjoying a stiff drink of gin before a battle to bolster their morale." Origins: Gin and Tonic — The Drink That Saved The British Empire
1620-1630. It is believed that the Spanish Jesuit missionaries in Peru were taught the healing power of the bark by natives living in the forests of the Andes Mountains, between 1620 and 1630. The first written record of a malaria cure with cinchona bark dates back to 1630. Don Juan López de Canizares, the Spanish governor of Loxa, a flourishing Peruvian city, was relieved of fever by drinking a cinchona infusion. (Loxa Bark). Malaria Site
August 11, 1621. Lady Ana de Osario marries the fourth Count of Chinchon to become the Countess of Chinchon. "The fourth Count of Chinchon, as has already been mentioned, married the Lady Ana de Osorio, widow of the Marquis of Salinas, at Madrid, on Sunday (or, as some authorities say, Wednesday), the 11th of August 1621. The Count and Countess resided, when not in attendance at Court, at Segovia or Chinchon." (The fourth Count of Chinchón was Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera). A memoir of the Lady Ana de Osorio, countess of Chinchon and vice-queen of Peru (A. D. 1629-39) with a plea for the correct spelling of the Chinchona genus
1628 - January 14, 1629. In 1628 the Count of Chinchon was appointed Viceroy of Peru, the greatest and most important trust that could be conferred upon a subject, for in those days the Viceroyalty of Peru included the whole of South America, excepting Brazil. The Count and Countess went out by way of Panama, landed at Callao in December, and made their solemn entry into Lima on the 14th of January 1629, when the new Viceroy received the command from his predecessor, the Marquis of Guadalcazar. A memoir of the Lady Ana de Osorio, countess of Chinchon and vice-queen of Peru (A. D. 1629-39) with a plea for the correct spelling of the Chinchona genus
Painting: The Condesa de Cinchón by Francis Goya, circa 1800.
1632.
1636. in about 1636 an Indian of Malacotas revealed the secret virtues of the quinquina bark to the Corregidor Canizares.
1638. But the most notable historical event in this Viceroy's time was the cure of his Countess, in the year 1638, of a tertian fever, by the use of Peruvian bark. The news of her illness at Lima reached Don Franciso Lopez de Canizares, who was then Corregidor of Loxa, and who had become acquainted with the febrifuge virtues of the bark. I have convinced myself that the remedy was unknown to the Indians in the time of the Yncas. It is mentioned neither by the Ynca Garcilasso nor by Acosta, in their lists of Indian medicines, nor is it to be found in the wallets of itinerant native doctors, whose materia medica has been handed down from father to son for centuries. It appears, however, to have been known to the Indians round Loxa, a town in the Andes, about 230 miles south of Quito. / In 1638, therefore, he' sent a parcel of it to the Vice-Queen, and the new remedy, administered by her physician, Dr Don Juan de Vega, effected a rapid and complete cure. It is known by tradition amongst the bark collectors, that the particular species from which the bark was taken which cured the Countess of Chinchon, was that known to them as Cascarilla (bark) de Chahuarguera*. /. There are four alkaloids, with febrifuge virtues, in the Peruvian bark — quinine, quinidine, chinchonine, and chinchonidine. The Cascarilla de Chahiarguera abounds in chinchonidine, and Mr Howard has pointed out* that this alkaloid probably contributed to the cure of the Countess, It is now understood that owing to its being at the same time as efficacious as and much cheaper than quinine, the chinchonidine will eventually be the chief agent by which health and the cure of fevers will be diffused among the vast native population of British India.
1638. The legend of quinine's discovery accepted in Europe differs though, and involves the Spanish Countess of Chinchon who, while in Peru, contracted a fever that was cured by the bark of a tree. Returning to Spain with the bark, she introduced quinine to Europe in 1638... Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: role in the treatment of malaria
Spring 1640. The Countess of Chinchon returned to Spain in the spring of 1640, with her husband, and bringing with her a supply of that precious quina bark which had worked so wonderful a cure upon herself, and the healing virtues of which she intended to distribute amongst the sick on her lord's estates, and. to make known generally in Europe. The bark powder was most appropriately called Countess's powder {Pulvis Comitissce), and by this name it was long known to druggists and in commerce. Dr Don Juan de Vega, the learned physician* of the Countess of Chinchon, followed his patient to Spain, bringing with him a quantity of quina bark, which he sold at Seville at 100 reals the pound. The bark continued to have the same high value and the same reputation, until the trees became scarce, and the collectors began to adulterate it. A memoir of the Lady Ana de Osorio, countess of Chinchon and vice-queen of Peru (A. D. 1629-39) with a plea for the correct spelling of the Chinchona genus
1672. Sir Robert Talbot treats King Charles II with Cinchona Bark. Charles II makes him the Physician Royal. "After several years of study and testing, he developed what we would now call a patent medicine, a secret formulation that was essentially an infusion of cinchona powder in white wine. In 1672, Talbor popularized his remedy by publishing Pyretologia: a Rational Account of the Cause and Cures of Agues." From Shakespeare to Defoe: Malaria in England in the Little Ice Age
1682. Sir Robert Talbor publishes The English Remedy, or Talbor's Wonderful Secret for Cureing of Agues and Feavers. Ordered published by the King according to him. This is Cinchona Bark. From Shakespeare to Defoe: Malaria in England in the Little Ice Age. "...there was no other way to satisfy my desire, but by that good ole way, observation and experiment: To this purpose I planted my self in Effex near t the Sea side, in a place where Agues are the epidemical diseases, where you will find but few persons but either are, or have been afflicted with a tedious Quartan: In this place I lived some years, making the best use of my time I could, for the improving my knowledge; curiously observing all Symptoms, Diagnosticks and Prognosticks; by which observations, and the assistance of my reason (God blessing my endeavours) I have attained to a perfect knowledge of the cure of the most inveterate and pertinacious Agues, and can inform a patient to a day when I will remove the fits, and what method I will proceed in with him; though to several persons, according to their several constitutions..."
1717. "As early as the Siege of Belgrade in 1717, cinchona bark was being used to suppress malaria in soldiers." Historical Review: Problematic Malaria Prophylaxis with Quinine
1735. THE Countess of Chinchon's powders continued to be imported into Europe for a century, and the beautiful trees whence the bark was taken were known as quina or quinquina trees. It was not until the French expedition of Gondailiine and Jussieu went to America in 1735, that the forests of Loxa were visited by scientific men, and a few years after- wards Condamine sent specimens of the quinquina plant to the great Swedish botanist Linnaeus, who was the first to describe it. The name of a new and most important genus was then to be given by Linnaeus, and he chose for it the most appropriate that could possibly have been selected, namely, that of the noble lady who had first made its healing virtues known. A memoir of the Lady Ana de Osorio, countess of Chinchon and vice-queen of Peru (A. D. 1629-39) with a plea for the correct spelling of the Chinchona genus
1742. "In 1742, Linnaeus gave the name of Chinchona to the genus,* with the intention of thus immortalising the great and beneficent acts of the Countess of Chinchon. Of course that intention is frustrated by spelling the name wrong. But most unfortunately Linnaeus was misinformed as to the name of her whom he desired to honour. This is to be accounted for by his having received his knowledge of the Countess of Chinchon through a French source, and French writers frequently alter the spelling of names that are not French. Thus misled, Linnaeus spelt the word Cinchona {Gen. PL 1742), and Cinhona {Gen. PI. ed. 1767), omitting one or two letters; but the fact that he altered the spelling in his different editions proves beyond any doubt that he desired to spell the word correctly." Three hundred and fifty years of the Peruvian fever bark
1750. By 1750, London's 675,000 throats were swallowing 11 million gallons a year, with one household in four also producing the stuff. A tonic for the troops: the spirit of the G&T endures
1777. " James Lind of the British Royal Navy in 1777 recommended that ships on the Guinea station (west Africa) “be supplied with a large quantity of bark in powder and of wine to be issued occasionally to those who are sent in boats up rivers and on shore." Historical Review: Problematic Malaria Prophylaxis with Quinine
1820. "Before 1820, the bark of the cinchona tree was first dried, ground to a fine powder, and then mixed into a liquid (commonly wine) before being drunk. In 1820, quinine was extracted from the bark, isolated and named by Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Caventou. Purified quinine then replaced the bark as the standard treatment for malaria. Quinine and other cinchona alkaloids including quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine (emphasis mine) are all effective against malaria." Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: role in the treatment of malaria.
1825. "By 1825 these had become the standard treatment for malaria. Indeed 'cinchona bark and its derived quinine alkaloids' were 'taking on an increasingly important role in the occupation and safe administration of tropical colonies.'" Products of the Empire: Cinchona: a short history
1840. "What did tonic water come from? Many equate the history of gin and tonic with the colonial British sitting on their verandas in India sipping on the beverage as the day passes by. In many ways, this is true. The quintessentially British cocktail was first consumed in the 19th century as a prophylactic against malaria. Tonic contains quinine powder, a substance extracted from the bark of the cinchona tree, which the burra- and memsahibs of India used to imbibe in copious amounts to stave off the dreaded ‘fever’. By 1840, 700 tons were being sold in India annually, most of it mixed with sugar, water and a dash of gin to soften its notoriously bitter edge." A History of Gin and Tonic
1852. "Trees were being felled in indigenous regions, prices rising and supplies diminishing. Thus in 1852 a Dutch expedition, followed by a British expedition in 1860 led by Sir Clements Markham, was sent to South America in order to procure cinchona seeds and plants which could be established on plantations in the colonies. Transportation of these seeds and saplings posed its own difficulties. In the Cinchona planter’s manual, for example, Owen describes how on flat land 'bridges are often necessary for crossing ravines.'" Products of the Empire: Cinchona: a short history
1856. "In 1856, William Henry Perkin, then age 18, was given a challenge by his professor, August Wilhelm von Hofmann, to synthesize quinine." He discovered a purple dye, Mauveine, in the process. Wikipedia
In 1856, during the Easter holidays from college, (William Henry) Perkin worked on a task set for him by the head of the Royal College of Chemistry, August Wilhelm von Hofmann. Only 18 years old, Perkin was in his second year of working as Hofmann’s research assistant. Hofmann was keen to develop a synthetic form of quinine, which was in demand as a treatment for malaria. Hofmann was interested in the chemical synthesis of natural compounds, and thought quinine was a good challenge, given that its natural form was difficult to extract. Perkin’s task was to carry out experiments using a substance called aniline, a colourless aromatic oil derived from coal tar. Perkin worked on his task in a rudimentary laboratory at home. His experiment involved him oxidising aniline using potassium dichromate. The oxidisation produced a black precipitate that, when the colour was removed, dyed silk purple. He recorded his findings in a notebook, which the museum holds on loan from the City of London School. WILLIAM HENRY PERKIN AND THE WORLD’S FIRST SYNTHETIC DYE
1858. The antidote was quinine, a bitter substance from the bark of a South American evergreen, often taken with gin, and which, in 1858, one Erasmus Bond rendered in an acceptable form by inventing tonic water. Winston Churchill was in no doubt about the value of this breakthrough, saying: "Gin and tonic has saved more Englishmen's lives, and minds, than all the doctors in the Empire." A TONIC FOR THE TROOPS: THE SPIRIT OF THE G&T ENDURES
August, 1861. Date given to a drawing: Cinchona plants at Ootacamund, August 1861.
From Travels in Peru and India, C.R. Markham, 1862
Reproduced in Geographical Journal Products of the Empire: Cinchona: a short history
1862. Cinchona Plants at a nursery.
April 1862. Quinine supplies are a factor in the Civil War of the United States. "The first test of this theory came in April 1862 in Shiloh, Tennessee, where Union General William T. Sherman’s forces met the enemy in a bloody battle. Before and after the fight, typhoid, diarrhea, scurvy, and the fevers associated with malarial diseases ravaged troops on both sides. …. The Northern blockade of Southern ports made importing quinine difficult, and smuggling from Northern or European sources proved unreliable. …. Surgeon General Moore’s Northern counterpart, Union army Surgeon General William Hammond created the U.S. Army Laboratory to ensure the purity of drugs and to create standards for drugs purchased by medical purveyors (agents authorized to purchase raw materials for medicines) and distributed to the various theaters of war. … The diseases Northern soldiers encountered in the South forced the North to industrialize its quinine production, which in turn required an emphasis on quality control and sophisticated channels of testing and distribution. The Civil War, although a time of incalculable destruction, provided the ingredients and conditions necessary to create the nation’s first example of modern large-scale drug manufacturing as well as the first government-run drug-testing laboratories." The Popular Dose with Doctors”: Quinine and the American Civil War
1864. Cinchona Bark Plantation drawing in India, 1864.
1865. Charles Ledger smuggles Cinchona with high Quinine yields out of South America. "This variety became known as the Cinchona Calisaya Ledgeriana and its export ultimately 'destroyed the South American monopoly on quinine.'" Three hundred and fifty years of the Peruvian fever bark
March 11, 1865. “A woodcut from the March 11, 1865, Harper’s Weekly shows quinine rations being distributed to Union troops.” “The Popular Dose with Doctors”: Quinine and the American Civil War. “Not until 1880 would a physician discover the single-cell Plasmodium parasites that cause malaria.”
1866-1868. Derivatives of Cinchona bark are tested extensively in one of the earliest clinical trials. "Quinine and other cinchona alkaloids including quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine are all effective against malaria. The efficacies of these four alkaloids were evaluated in one of the earliest clinical trials, conducted from 1866 to 1868 in 3600 patients using prepared sulfates of the alkaloids. With the main outcome measure of "cessation of febrile paroxysms", all four alkaloids were found to be comparable, with cure rates of >98%." Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: role in the treatment of malaria
1870. "the Schweppes company in 1870, still recognised for its tonic water today... invented a process to carbonate mineral water and found it worked a treat with Bond’s recipe. They named the tonic water Indian Quinine Tonic and the mixer made a fortune for the firm as the British Empire reached its peak." A History of Gin and Tonic
10.26.1872. Artist unknown. ‘The production of quinine in India, the cinchona plantations at Darjeeling Bengal; Cinchona succirubra 30 feet high’. Products of the Empire: Cinchona: a short history
1877. Ledger’s Cinchona seeds are selling well. Three hundred and fifty years of the Peruvian fever bark
1890. "...after 1890 quinine became the predominantly used alkaloid, mainly due to a change in supply from South American to Javan cinchona bark, which contained a higher proportion of quinine." Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: role in the treatment of malaria
1891. This is where “Chemotherapy” begins to take the place of Medicine, unfortunately for mankind.
Paul Ehrlich's synthetic methylene blue compound, developed as a dye, becomes a competitor against Quinine for anti-malaria drug. Methylene blue was one of the first chemical compounds described as a "magic bullet." The magic bullet theory is the theory of chemotherapy, where a specific organism can be killed with a specific chemical that does not harm the host. Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: role in the treatment of malaria
1898-1904. The United States occupies Cuba in the Spanish American War. Quinine is given to troops to fight Yellow Fever.
1904-1910 The United States again uses Quinine to fight malaria in the construction of the Panama Canal which began in 1904. "The control of malaria was vital for the construction of the Panama Canal. The discovery by Major Ronald Ross that malaria was transmitted by mosquitoes had tremendous impact on development programs in the tropics. One of the first of these was the construction of the Panama Canal, which began within a few years after Dr. Ross’s discovery. During the American occupation of Havana, Cuba, regulations were put into effect by the United States Army for the control of yellow fever that consisted of the screening of houses and extensive drainage to reduce breeding of mosquitoes. Not only was yellow fever eliminated, but malaria transmission was also greatly reduced. Work in Havana was under the direction of Surgeon Major W. C. Gorgas." ... "The result of this malaria program was eradication of yellow fever and a dramatic decrease in malaria deaths. The death rate due to malaria in employees dropped from 11.59 per 1,000 in November 1906 to 1.23 per 1,000 in December 1909. It reduced the deaths from malaria in the total population from a maximum of 16.21 per 1,000 in July 1906 to 2.58 per 1,000 in December 1909." The Panama Canal.
During the building of the Panama Canal there are signs of serious side effects including death due to the huge amounts of quinine that some people were taking. Historical Review: Problematic Malaria Prophylaxis with Quinine. Blackwater fever usually occurs in expatriates living for several years in a highly malarious area while taking intermittent and variable amounts of quinine.17,20 Rarely, a massive hemolytic event occurred in a person who had previously tolerated the medication, resulting in hemoglobinuria (blackwater), sometimes progressing to acute renal failure and death. During the early 20th century, blackwater fever was the leading medical cause of death in expatriate soldiers and administrators in colonial Africa and some parts of south Asia. The relationship to quinine was not universal, but a series of blackwater fever patients showed that a larger than normal quinine dose usually preceded hemolysis by some hours. During the building of the Panama Canal from 1904–1910, Colonel William Gorgas of the U.S. Army distributed literally tons of quinine, subsequently observing 226 blackwater fever cases from a total worker population of 50,000; it occurred mostly in Spanish and Italian laborers.18,24 The pathophysiology of blackwater fever was widely studied, but remains poorly understood. Its association with prophylactic quinine meant that very different national policies existed, and different groups of expatriates had fixed ideas about what was or was not the appropriate use of the drug.1,8,19 Blackwater fever entered the folklore of African expatriates, where besides being greatly feared as supposedly always being lethal, required never moving a blackwater fever patient from his sickbed as this would surely cause immediate death.
1913. Producers of Cinchona collude to limit production to keep prices high. Products of the Empire: Cinchona: a short history
Furthermore, in 1913 an agreement was drawn up between the Javan cinchona producers and the manufacturers of quinine in Java, England, Holland and Germany to put an end to the “great variation in price which jeopardised the security of the bark producers.” (Kerboesch) This resulted in a situation where “for many years past the Netherlands East India Cinchona plantations have produced 97% of total world production while British India has produced 2.5% and the rest of the world 0.5%
8.3.1917. Date of photo of Australian soldiers in New Guinea receiving Quinine rations. https: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4973170/figure/fig1/?report=objectonly
1918. "Second Quinine Convention gave control of Quinine to the Dutch". Note: I can't find a document on the "Second Quinine Convention." I believe the Convention has something to do with the Treaty of Versailles outlining Germany's reparation responsibilities. "Germany accords to the Reparation Commission an option to require as part of reparation the delivery by Germany of such quantities and kinds of dyestuffs and chemical drugs as the Commission may designate, not exceeding 50 per cent of the total stock of each and every kind of dyestuff and chemical drug in German or under German control at the date of the coming into force of the present Treaty." ... The above expression "dyestuffs and chemical drugs" includes all synthetic dyes and drugs and intermediate or other products used in connection with dyeing, so far as they are manufactured for sale. The present arrangement shall also apply to cinchona bark and salts of quinine." Three hundred and fifty years of the Peruvian fever bark
1918. The Spanish Flu. "In 1918, in the midst of the worst flu pandemic in history, doctors all over the world prescribed quinine, another anti-malarial drug, even though there was no evidence that it worked for flu." What the 1918 flu pandemic can teach us about coronavirus drug trials
1918. Publication of Sales of Cinchona bark from Java and India. I imagine it went up a great deal during the Spanish Flu. Products of the Empire: Cinchona: a short history
1920s - 1940s. "Quinine remained the mainstay of malaria treatment until the 1920s, when more effective synthetic anti-malarials became available. The most important of these drugs was chloroquine, which was extensively used, especially beginning in the 1940s [6]. With heavy use, chloroquine resistance developed slowly." Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: role in the treatment of malaria
1934. "Hans Andersag first synthesized Resochin, later called chloroquine, at the Bayer Company in Eberfeld, Germany in 1934. The synthesis resulted from the structural analysis of the quinine molecule and the localization of the antimalarial activity at the level of the oxyquinolinebenzene nucleus. It was initially rejected as being too toxic." LINK TO STANFORD.EDU THAT NOW SAYS “ACCESS FORBIDDEN” AFTER I LINKED TO IT
1942. Quinine was supplied by the first global pharmaceutical cartel which discouraged competition resulting in a near monopoly of cinchona plantations on the island of Java which were closed to Allied use when the Japanese Imperial Army captured Indonesia in 1942." Historical Review: Problematic Malaria Prophylaxis with Quinine
After the outbreak of World War II supplies of the drug became, in any case, inaccessible to the Allies as “the world supply of cultivated quinine trees in Asia (especially in Indonesia and Java) was captured by Japan” and quinine reserves in Amsterdam were captured by Germany. Products of the Empire: Cinchona: a short history
1942. Frances Kelsey traveled to South America, where she "learned" that embryonic rabbits could not break down quinine. "It was early 1942 and war was raging in the jungles of the Pacific. In addition to fighting the Japanese, Allied troops found themselves under attack by malaria-carrying mosquitoes. And since enemy soldiers had already captured several plantations of cinchona trees, the source of the anti-malarial quinine, the search was on for an effective quinine substitute to combat the disease. …. The war ended without finding a good substitute for quinine. But Kelsey did learn something valuable from the experience. She learned that rabbits metabolized quinine rapidly, but pregnant rabbits had less ability to break down the drug, and embryonic rabbits could not break it down at all. She also learned that drugs could pass through the placental barrier between mother and unborn child. These insights would serve Kelsey well some 15 years later when in early 1960, as a new Food and Drug Administration employee, she was asked to evaluate a drug most thought was harmless. That drug was thalidomide." FDA ARTICLE THAT THEY DELETED AFTER I LINKED TO IT.
November 1943. Cinchona seedlings are grown near Washington D.C. for shipment to South America. LINK TO STANFORD.EDU THAT NOW SAYS “ACCESS FORBIDDEN” AFTER I LINKED TO IT
1956. "Resistance of the Plasmodium to chloroquine was first suspected by Ray and Sharma in 1956, approximately 11 years after its introduction. The first confirmed cases were in two Americans who returned from Colombia with chloroquine resistant P. falciparum strains. Their strains did respond to treatment with pyrimethamine and quinine. Shortly thereafter, the U.S. Army began to see rising incidence of malaria among troops in Vietnam who were being prophylaxed with chloroquine. Resistance was becoming a serious issue, raising the disturbing possibility of reintroduction of malaria into countries where it had been eradicated decades before." LINK TO STANFORD.EDU THAT NOW SAYS “ACCESS FORBIDDEN” AFTER I LINKED TO IT
Early-mid 1960s. Nazi sadist Klaus Barbie shipped cinchona bark to Germany for processing for use by American soldiers in Vietnam. Barbie and other German war criminals were recruited by the CIA when it was forming. The Nuremburg trials were mainly for show. They sent Barbie to Bolivia where their primary export was cocaine, (or some stage of cocaine's production). "(Klaus) Barbie alias Altmann lived with his wife in the Bolivian capital (La Paz), where he ran a company called La Estrella, which supplied the Boehringer pharmaceutical company in the western German city of Mannheim with cinchona bark, from which the medication quinine was extracted." German Intelligence hired Klaus Barbie as an agent Boehringer has another interesting connection to chemicals used in the Vietnam War, as best explained by them: Boehringer Ingelheim did not produce Agent Orange. The company did also not contribute to its production by supplying precursors or raw materials. (Read the "fine print," of course).
LATE 2019. COVID PLANDEMIC BEGINS.
I will try to update this section later. Much of it picks up in Designed to Fail.
Charles Wright
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